1.2 Understanding the Research Process
1.2.1 The Research Method
Aim - The purpose of the study. It indicates the behaviour or mental process which is being studied.
Target population – The group whose behaviour the researcher wishes to study.
Procedure – Step-by-step process used by the researcher to carry out a study
Findings – How the researcher interpreted the data that was collected. Finding are always open to discussion.
Cultural Bias - maybe the research was conducted within a particular culture and cannot be applied to other
Participants – People who take part in the study
Sample – The group of participants selected from the target population. The sample must be representative of the wider target population (representative sample)
Sampling Bias – When the sample is not representative of the target populations. For example, if psychology students are asked to conduct research in their university, they may only sample middle class people from 18-22.
Participant variability – The extent to which the participants may share a common set of traits that can bias the outcome of study.
CLASSIC EXPERIMENT
Title: The Pygmalion Effect
Researcher: Rosenthal and Jacobson
Date: 1968
Aim: Do teachers expectation of students performance actually have an effect on student learning
Methodology: Researchers gave 18 classes (kindergarten to 6th grade) an intelligence test. They chose 20% of students at random and told teachers that these showed unusual potential for intellectual growth¨. Teachers could expect these to improve greatly during the year. Of course this was not true. At he end of the school year, all students were tested again.
Results: Those labelled as intelligent showed a significantly greater increase in test scores than the other children (See page 18 for website references)
Target population – The group whose behaviour the researcher wishes to study.
Procedure – Step-by-step process used by the researcher to carry out a study
Findings – How the researcher interpreted the data that was collected. Finding are always open to discussion.
Cultural Bias - maybe the research was conducted within a particular culture and cannot be applied to other
Participants – People who take part in the study
Sample – The group of participants selected from the target population. The sample must be representative of the wider target population (representative sample)
Sampling Bias – When the sample is not representative of the target populations. For example, if psychology students are asked to conduct research in their university, they may only sample middle class people from 18-22.
Participant variability – The extent to which the participants may share a common set of traits that can bias the outcome of study.
CLASSIC EXPERIMENT
Title: The Pygmalion Effect
Researcher: Rosenthal and Jacobson
Date: 1968
Aim: Do teachers expectation of students performance actually have an effect on student learning
Methodology: Researchers gave 18 classes (kindergarten to 6th grade) an intelligence test. They chose 20% of students at random and told teachers that these showed unusual potential for intellectual growth¨. Teachers could expect these to improve greatly during the year. Of course this was not true. At he end of the school year, all students were tested again.
Results: Those labelled as intelligent showed a significantly greater increase in test scores than the other children (See page 18 for website references)
1.2.2 Sampling Techniques
Types of Samples
1. Opportunity Sample – A sample of people who just happened to be there by chance and agreed to participate. E.g. People asking questions in a supermarket.
Advantages: Easy
Disadvantages: Sample may not be representative- more women may shop in the supermarket than men.
2. Self-selected Sample – A sample made up of volunteers. E.g. Placing an advertisement in a newspaper.
Advantages: Easy and well motivated sample.
Disadvantages: The samples rarely reflects the target population, difficult therefore to make generalisations.
3. Snowball Sample – When participants ask their friends or family to also take part. Good for when the target population is difficult to access e.g. Drug users
4. Random Sample – A sample where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected- This helps to make the sample representative. E.g. Putting all the names of the target population into a hats and drawing names randomly.
If the sample is large enough then it should contain all characteristics of the population and therefore be representative. The researcher can better generalise the findings to the larger population.
5. Stratified Sample – A target population is firstly divided into subpopulations. Then participants are randomly selected from within these populations.
Could set it up by discussing how best to draw a sample from the English section.
1. Opportunity Sample – A sample of people who just happened to be there by chance and agreed to participate. E.g. People asking questions in a supermarket.
Advantages: Easy
Disadvantages: Sample may not be representative- more women may shop in the supermarket than men.
2. Self-selected Sample – A sample made up of volunteers. E.g. Placing an advertisement in a newspaper.
Advantages: Easy and well motivated sample.
Disadvantages: The samples rarely reflects the target population, difficult therefore to make generalisations.
3. Snowball Sample – When participants ask their friends or family to also take part. Good for when the target population is difficult to access e.g. Drug users
4. Random Sample – A sample where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected- This helps to make the sample representative. E.g. Putting all the names of the target population into a hats and drawing names randomly.
If the sample is large enough then it should contain all characteristics of the population and therefore be representative. The researcher can better generalise the findings to the larger population.
5. Stratified Sample – A target population is firstly divided into subpopulations. Then participants are randomly selected from within these populations.
Could set it up by discussing how best to draw a sample from the English section.
1.2.3 Ethics in Research
All research needs to be conducted in a way that respects the dignity of the participants, both humans and animals. There is a clear set of 6 ethical guidelines for Psychologists and IB Students.
1) Informed Consent: Participants must be informed about the nature of the study and agree to participate.
2) Deception: Only slight deception, which causes no stress or harm, can be used when the researcher does not want the participant to know the exact aim of the study. At the end, the deception must be explained.
3) Debriefing: The aim and purpose of the study must be clearly be presented to all subjects at the end of the study
4) Withdrawal from a study: Participants should be able to leave the study anytime they want to. At the start, during, or they can remove their data at the end.
5) Confidentiality: All information obtained from the study must be confidential
6) Protection from Mental or Physical Harm: No harm must come to participants.
1) Informed Consent: Participants must be informed about the nature of the study and agree to participate.
2) Deception: Only slight deception, which causes no stress or harm, can be used when the researcher does not want the participant to know the exact aim of the study. At the end, the deception must be explained.
3) Debriefing: The aim and purpose of the study must be clearly be presented to all subjects at the end of the study
4) Withdrawal from a study: Participants should be able to leave the study anytime they want to. At the start, during, or they can remove their data at the end.
5) Confidentiality: All information obtained from the study must be confidential
6) Protection from Mental or Physical Harm: No harm must come to participants.
Are these experiments Ethical?
EXPERIMENT 1: Milgram`s Obedience to Authority Experiment
Milgram started his experiments in 1961, shortly after the trial of the World War II criminal Adolph Eichmann had begun. Eichmann’s defense that he was simply following instructions when he ordered the deaths of millions of Jews roused Milgram’s interest. In his 1974 book Obedience to Authority, Milgram posed the question, "Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call them all accomplices?"
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EXPERIMENT 2: The Stanford Prison Experiment
Zimbardo (1973) was interested in finding out whether the brutality reported among guards in American prisons was due to the sadistic personalities of the guards or had more to do with the prison environment.
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EXPERIMENT 3: Asch Conformity Experiment
Solomon Asch (1951) conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform.
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1.2.4 Validity and Reliability